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Key to Eleocharis

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1 Plants spreading primarily via proliferous spikelets and tip-rooting culms OR growing as submersed or floating aquatics with only vegetative culms present (these either simple and flaccid or proliferous); plants sometimes with a few fertile culms that bear spikelets but otherwise primarily vegetative; culms usually sprawling; tip-rooting culms dark green and firm, OR wiry, weak and light green colored; plants growing submersed in water or sprawling on moist exposed soil in areas with seasonal drawdown
1 Plants primarily with fertile spikelets born at the apex of culms, occasionally with a few proliferous spikelets, but rarely spreading primarily via vegetative means; culms erect, decumbent, or reclining, robust or diminutive; plants cespitose OR rhizomatous and mat-forming; plants growing as terrestrial or emergent wetland plants.
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Show caption*© Scott Ward, some rights reserved (CC BY), uploaded by Scott Ward
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Show caption*© Douglas Goldman, some rights reserved (CC BY), uploaded by Douglas Goldman
  2 Culms transversely nodose-septate, these cross partitions complete and evident through the outside of culms (fresh culms appear ribbed); achenes biconvex; [subgenus Limnochloa, in part]
  2 Culms not transversely nodose-septate OR if so, septae incomplete, internal, and not evident on the outside of fresh culms (only evident upon sectioning culm); achenes biconvex, terete, trigonous, or compressed-trigonous.
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Show caption*© Scott Ward
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Show caption*© Gary P. Fleming
    3 Spikelets distinctly long and cylindric (> 4× as long as wide); the width of the spikelets the same as the culm width, thus not conspicuously expanded from the culms below; the base of the spikelets narrowly cuneate; achenes biconvex; [subgenus Limnochloa , in part]
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Show caption*© Scott Ward
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Show caption*© Gary P. Fleming
    3 Spikelets typically ovoid, but also terete, lanceoloid, or ellipsoid and rarely cylindric (e.g. E. palustris), < 4× as long as wide; spikelets distinctly wider than the culms, thus obviously differentiated and expanded from the culms below; the base of the spikelets broadly cuneate, rounded, or truncate; achenes biconvex, terete, trigonous, or compressed-trigonous.
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Show caption*© Scott Ward
      4 Achenes bearing several (6-13) longitudinal ribs with very narrow horizontally elongate cells between, these ribs conspicuously raised from the achene surface; achenes diminutive, < 1.1 mm long; [subgenus Scirpidium]
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Show caption*© Scott Ward
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Show caption*© Melanie Flood
      4 Achenes not bearing 6 or more longitudinal ribs; if bearing indistinct ribs, then achenes do not have thin horizontal intervening cells (as in E. tortilis and E. tuberculosa), or if bearing 3 distinct keels, these only along the margins of each achene face (as in E. tricostata); achenes diminutive to large (0.5-2.5 mm long), their surfaces smooth, finely reticulate or veined, rugulose, or honeycomb-reticulate.
        5 Achenes primarily lenticular or biconvex (therefore achene with only 2 prominent faces); styles mostly 2-branched (occasionally with some 3-branched).
          6 Plants primarily consisting of vegetative proliferations (rarely with reproductive culms), the vegetative culms branched and terminating in numerous whorl-like arrangements; growing aquatically or submerged in standing water; spikelets one-flowered with 2 scales, these reproductive culms exserted just above the water surface at anthesis; achenes terminated by a subulate mucro, lacking a tubercle; [Eleocharis ser. Websteria]
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          6 Plants without whorled vegetative proliferations; emergent in a variety of wetlands; spikelets with a few to many flowers or scales (usually 8 or more); achenes terminated by a tubercle; [subgenus Eleocharis, in part].
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        5 Achenes primarily trigonous (sometimes compressed trigonous or plano-trigonous), therefore with 3 prominent to obscured faces OR achenes nearly terete; achenes bearing more than only 2 obvious sides, these marked with obvious keels or rounded edges, OR almost entirely rounded and thus without any prominent faces; styles mostly 3-branched (occasionally with some 2-branched); [subgenus Eleocharis, in part, except for E. quinqueflora].

Key to Eleocharis, Key A: spikerushes with tip-rooting culms present; culms only vegetative, or a mix of primarily proliferous and some reproductive spikelets

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1 Plants producing only vegetative culms, no reproductive culms present.
  2 Culms usually firm or hard, 0.35-3 mm wide, compressed; plants tip-rooting in terrestrial wetland habitats.
    3 Culms 0.35-2 mm wide; bearing up to 8 subacute ribs; distal leaf sheath not bearing an apical tooth [calcareous brackish or tidal habitats, inland calcareous fens, other similar limestone-influenced wetlands; ME, ON, south to FL, TX, further westward]
    3 Culms 0.5-1.3 mm wide; usually with 10 blunt ribs, finely ridged and minutely granular (at 20x); distal leaf sheath nearly always bearing an apical tooth up to 2 mm long; [freshwater habitats, coastal plain ponds, often acidic; MA w. to MI, south to TX and FL]
  2 Culms wiry, soft, 0.1-0.7 mm wide, variously shaped but not conspicuously compressed; plants growing submersed or floating in aquatic habitats (e.g. creeks, ponds, rivers).
      4 Plants with rhizomes (0.5-2 mm thick); with submersed flaccid culms internally spongy bearing incomplete transverse septae (aquatic forms).
        5 Tubers absent; culms emerging from jointed elongate stolons; [Sinkhole ponds, depression ponds, sawgrass sloughs, lakeshores, creeks, canals, ditches; NC to FL, w. to TX]
        5 Tubers sometimes present; plants with rhizomes but typically growing more tufted; [Sinkhole ponds, depression ponds, blackwater impoundments, natural lakes, millponds, springs; typically fresh-water habitats; Ont. and Que. south to MS and FL]
      4 Plants without pronounced rhizomes (sometimes with short caudexlike rhizomes in E. vivipara), submersed or flaccid culms lacking transverse septae.
          6 Culms producing secondary or tertiary proliferations (proliferous spikelets branching more than once per culm).
             7 Base of whorl abruptly widened from culm, forming a distinct shoulder; whorl divisions many per whorl (commonly 20 or more); whorl divisions usually 0.2 mm or less wide, finely capillary (often < 0.1 mm, but some may approach 0.3 mm); surface texture of divisions obviously beaded (under dissecting microscope); plants ultimately appearing "fan-like" towards terminal whorls
             7 Base of whorl gradually widened from culm, vase-shaped, not forming a distinct shoulder; whorl divisions fewer per whorl (commonly 15 or less); whorl divisions usually 0.3 mm or more wide (0.5 mm or more, but the finest secondary or tertiary divisions as slender as 0.15 mm); surface texture of divisions not beaded (under dissecting microscope); plants appearing less "fan-like" towards terminal whorls
          6 Culms producing a single proliferous spikelet (not proliferating more than once per culm).
               8 Upper portion of sheath thin and scarious, the edge not differently colored (sometimes with a few red-brown spots or streaks, but not with concentrated red dots at the tips); sheath tip 1-2 mm long; plants usually filiform and capillary; without rhizomes
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               8 Upper portion of sheath firm, the edge closely red-dotted; sheath tip < 1 mm long; plants soft or firm (emergent plants typically more robust); with thin caudex-like rhizomes
1 Plants with a few reproductive culms present; plants thus a mix of predominantly vegetative culms (bearing proliferous spikelets) and a few spikelet-bearing culms.
                 9 Culms wider, 0.35-2 mm in diameter, typically strong or firm, usually darker green colored with erect and arching culms, not spotted.
                   10 Leaf sheath summit with narrow tooth (up to 1 mm long); achene blackened, apex widened and truncate; [widespread, primarily in Coastal Plain, disjunct in Ridge and Valley province of VA]
                   10 Leaf sheath summit truncate, sometimes with callous swelling; achene green to medium or dark brown, apex rounded, not widened and truncate; [widespread northward within calcareous fens and brackish wetlands, scattered southward in brackish habitats]
                 9 Culms thinner, 0.1-0.4 (-0.6) in diameter, soft and wiry, often arching and light green colored, sometimes spotted or red-brown streaked.
                     11 Culms producing 2 or 3 proliferous whorls; plants usually growing aquatically or submersed under water in ponds, lakes, or depressions.
                       12 Spikelets with a single flower and 2 scales; achenes biconvex, with a beak, but lacking a tubercle (plants rarely reproductive)
                       12 Spikelets with 5-25 scales, spiraled; achenes trigonous with prominent angles, with a pronounced tubercle (plants often with some reproductive culms)
                     11 Culms only producing 1 proliferous whorl; plants growing submersed in water or emergent in drawdown zones of ponds and other aquatic or wetland habitats.
                          13 Achenes finely to coarsely honeycomb-reticulate or with an otherwise reticulate or porose surface.
                            14 Scales 2-6 per spikelet, arranged distichously; tubercle trilobed and decurrent on achene sides; [waif; Mobile, AL]
                            14 Scales 5-25 per spikelet, spiraled; tubercle trigonous, not decurrent on achene sides [widespread in southeastern Coastal Plain]
                          13 Achenes smooth to finely reticulate, but lacking a defined porose or textured surface.
                              15 Achenes often spotted, gray or greenish to red-brown; spikelets distichous or spirodistichous; sheath apex obtuse, acute, or narrowly acute; bristles clearly or sparsely retrorsely spinulose
                                16 Sheath apex obtuse or acute; spikelets distichous at maturity; bristles 3-7
                                16 Sheath apex narrowly acute, membranous, usually with torn edge; spikelets spirodistichous at maturity (appearing superficially spiraled); bristles 6
                              15 Achenes not spotted (or rarely spotted), usually white or light grey colored; spikelets spiraled; sheath apex narrowly acute; bristles not evidently spinulose
                                  17 Scale apices rounded throughout, typically more uniform white-colored; proximal scale tip appressed to basal scales; tubercle birettaform; bristles to 0.3 mm long (distinctly shorter than achene) or absent
                                  17 Scale apices subacute to acute throughout (sometimes a few obscurely rounded), typically with red-tinging on the scale margins; proximal scale free (i.e. not tightly appressed to basal scales); tubercle pyramidal, semicircular, or birettaform; bristles 0.2-1.0 mm long (shorter than or equaling achene, rarely absent)
                                    18 Perianth bristles 0.6-1 mm long, shorter than to equaling achene; proximal scale of spikelets 0.8-1 mm wide
                                    18 Perianth bristles 0.2-0.4 mm long, shorter than achene; proximal scale of spikelets 0.4-0.5 mm wide

Key to Eleocharis, Key B: spikerushes with culms nodose-septate (bearing complete septae, externally evident); achenes biconvex

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1 Culms < 3 mm in diameter.
  2 Spikelets cylindric, the width the same as the width of the culms; roots (usually) with conspicuous tubers; achenes 2.0-2.5 mm long; tubercles triangular-attenuate; [cultivated waif, GA, potentially elsewhere]
  2 Spikelets ovoid, the width of the base slightly exceeding the width of the culms; roots without tubers (rhizomes often concealed by culms and roots); achenes 0.8-1.1. mm long; tubercles depressed-pyramidal; [common, widespread native, GA and FL w. to TX]
1 Culms > 5 mm in diameter.
    3 Spikelets narrowly ovoid, wider at the base and tapering to the apex; achene bodies < 1.2 mm long, surface finely reticulate; scales (2-) 2.5-3 mm long, delicate, purplish-brown; [uncommon, c. FL]
    3 Spikelets cylindric, the width uniform from base to apex; achene bodies > 1.4 mm long, surface rugulose (or smooth to finely cancellate in E. dulcis); scales (3-) 4.5-7 mm long, leathery (besides margins), pale yellowish-brown (sometimes grayish green in E. dulcis, but often maturing stramineous); [common to intermittent, collectively widespread].
      4 Roots (usually) with conspicuous tubers; achenes 2.0-2.5 mm long, primarily smooth or sometimes finely cancellate (transverse cells obscure, if present), the bristles as long as or exceeding tubercle; [cultivated waif, GA, potentially elsewhere]
      4 Roots lacking conspicuous tubers; achenes 1.4-2.3 mm long, with visible longitudinal ridges (E. interstincta) and/or transversely elongated cells (E. equisetoides, which can sometimes also be mostly smooth but has bristles shorter than achene); [widespread natives].
        5 Achenes 1.8-2.3 mm long; pistillate scales 5.2-7 mm long; achene faces with longitudinal rows of enlarged linear cells separated by obscure longitudinal lines; perianth bristles slender and flexuous, finely spinulose, shorter than to equaling the achene (to 2.5 mm long); culm septae widely (> 10 mm) and ± evenly spaced; [widespread in our area]
        5 Achenes 1.4-1.8 (-2) mm long; pistillate scales (4-) 4.5-5 mm long; achene faces with 20-40 bold transverse-rugulose lines; perianth bristles stiff and stout, coarsely spinulose, exceeding the achene (to 2.9 mm long); culm septae concentrated proximally (below spikelet); [OK, TX, AL, and FL; widespread in c. and s. FL]

Key to Eleocharis, Key C: spikerushes with cylindric spikelets about the same width as culms; fresh culms with incomplete septae not evident externally

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1 Culms acutely quadrangular (with four distinct sides)
1 Culms trigonous or terete, sometimes obscurely angled.
  2 Culms 0.5-1.5 mm wide; spikelets < 3 mm wide; achene < 1.4 mm wide; plants sometimes with aquatic, submerged forms bearing vegetative, filiform, flaccid culms.
    3 Achene body 0.65-1.5 mm long, whitish, stramineous, or pale green; scales mostly ca. 3.5 mm long; culms terete when fresh; tubers absent
    3 Achene body (1.5-) 1.9-2.6 mm long, stramineous or medium brown; scales mostly ca. 5 mm long; culms acutely trigonous when fresh; tubers sometimes present
  2 Culms 1.0-7.5 (-8.5) mm wide (culms mostly > 1.5 mm); spikelets 3.5-8 mm wide; achene > 1.4 mm wide; plants without submerged, vegetative aquatic forms.
      4 Achene apex gradually narrowed into a stout spongy region, confluent with tubercle; perianth bristles smooth (or with only minutely retrorse barbs distally); [widespread in coastal areas from NC to FL, w. to TX]
      4 Achenes lacking a stout spongy region at the apex, distinctly separate from the tubercles (or achene apex slightly constricted into a hard annular thickening, but still with a distinguishable transition zone as in E. mutata); perianth bristles distinctly retrorsely barbed; [coastal areas; s. FL and s. TX].
        5 Culms terete or obscurely 3-5 angled, not conspicuously trigonous throughout; culms (2- ) 3.6-7.5 mm wide [s. TX Coastal Plain]
        5 Culms trigonous throughout; culms (1.1-) 1.5-5.1 (-8.5) mm wide [s. FL].
          6 Scales of spikelet ovate-oblong; bristles irregularly retrorse (retrorse spinules shorter and more concentrated distally), most shorter than the achene body; achenes shiny dark brown at maturity; achene apex markedly constricted into a short neck; culms primarily 1.5-3.7 mm wide; [waif, s. FL]
          6 Scales of spikelet ovate to broadly ovate; bristles coarsely retrorse, mostly exceeding achene and tubercle; achenes lustrous olive-yellow to amber at maturity, achene apex slightly constricted into hard annual thickening (not forming a "neck" between achene and tubercle); culms primarily 2.6-5.1 mm wide; [potential waif; s. TX and s. FL]

Key to Eleocharis, Key D: spikerushes with achenes bearing several distinct longitudinal ribs with very narrow horizontal cells between the ribs (subgenus Scirpidium)

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1 Culms compressed, rectangular or C-shaped in cross-section, to 1.2 (-1.5) mm wide; some or all of culm edges with acute or serrulate ridges
1 Culms not compressed, without sharp ridges; instead terete or obscurely angled (or only slightly compressed and not bearing sharpened ridges); culms < 0.5 mm wide.
  2 Achenes < 0.6 mm long, much less than 2× longer than wide; [Texas].
    3 Distal leaf sheaths translucent, acute apically; scales orange-brown to stramineous, spreading, 10-30 per spike; floral scales spreading; plants annual, densely cespitose; [s. TX and Tamaulipas, possibly extinct]
    3 Distal leaf sheaths red proximally, blunt apically; scales bright red-brown, 5-15 per spike; plants perennial, with evident or obscured rhizomes; [primarily TX Gulf Coastal Plain, extant]
  2 Achenes 0.7-1.1 mm long, ca. 2× (or more) longer than wide; [collectively widespread].
      4 Culms capillary, firm, to 20 cm tall, 0.2-0.4 (-0.5) mm wide, not wrinkling in drying; spikelets 3-6 mm long; achenes 0.7-1.1 mm long, 0.35-0.6 mm wide; [widespread in our region]
      4 Culms stout and spongy, to 8 cm tall, 0.6-1.0 mm wide, becoming wrinkled in drying; spikelets 2-4 mm long; achenes 0.75-0.9 mm long, 0.34-0.4 mm wide; [primarily scattered across Gulf Coastal Plain, known historically from VA Beach in 1934]

Key to Eleocharis, Key E: spikerushes with achenes lenticular or biconvex and styles mostly 2-branched (2-fid)

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1 Distal leaf sheath apex delicate, membranous, or disintegrating (thus, sometimes not readily apparent); usually inflated or wrinkled, often with a torn edge; culms 0.1-0.6 (to 1 mm on fresh specimens) mm wide.
  2 Culms 0.1-0.3 mm in diameter; achenes whitish to pale brown; leaf sheaths of the upper culm closely sheathing the stem, not wrinkled, the apex acute
  2 Culms 0.3-0.6 mm in diameter; achenes rufous- or olivaceous-brown to black; leaf sheaths of the upper culm usually prominently wrinkled, inflated, membranous, and disintegrating.
    3 Achenes rufous-brown to reddish-purple to black, (0.3-) 0.4-0.6 mm wide; longer bristles retrorsely barbed, shorter than to equaling achene body
    3 Achenes olivaceous-brown to black (often olivaceous), 0.5-0.7 (-0.8) mm wide; longer bristles either retrorsely barbed and equaling to exceeding the tubercle (E. olivacea var. olivacea), or smooth and shorter than the tubercle (E. olivacea var. reductiseta).
      4 Bristles retrorsely barbed, the longest bristles equaling to far exceeding the tubercle; [wet sandy or peaty habitats, NS to FL, w. to MS and TX]
      4 Bristles smooth, the longest bristles shorter than the tubercle; [tidal rivers, in s. NJ]
1 Distal leaf sheath apex firm, opaque, somewhat thickened, with an acute to obtuse apex, and sometimes bearing a small tooth; rarely disintegrating, not inflated or wrinkled; culms 0.3-5 mm wide.
        5 Rhizomatous perennials growing from evident horizontal rhizomes; achenes not persistent in the spikelet after scales have fallen, 0.9-1.9 mm long; tubercles pyramidal or mammillate (nipple-like); [E. palustris complex].
          6 Basal (proximal) scale of spikelet encircling 2/3-3/4 of the culm; culms terete to markedly compressed; (rarely amplexicaulous in E. macrostachya, if so then culms also usually markedly compressed).
             7 Basal 2-3 scales empty or fertile; spikelets 5-40 mm long, 2-5 mm wide; achene yellow, yellow-brown, or dark-brown; leaf sheath apex often with tooth (except E. macrostachya); [primarily west of MS river, with very scattered locations eastward]
               8 Culms terete or slightly compressed; distal leaf sheath apex often obtuse, rarely with a tooth present (if so to 0.1 mm); spikelets broadly lanceoloid to ovoid, the scales 3.5-4.0 (-4.5) long; achenes 1.3-1.5 (-1.8) mm long
               8 Culms markedly compressed, 3x wider than thick; distal leaf-sheath apex subtruncate, often with a tooth .6-1 mm long; spikelets narrowly lanceoloid, the scales 2.5-4 mm long, lanceolate and carinate; achenes 1.1-1.5 mm long, 0.8-1.2 mm wide
             7 Basal 2-3 scales sterile; spikelets 5-25 mm long, 3-7 mm wide; achene stramineous to dark brown; leaf sheath apex without tooth; [of the Mountains, rarely the Piedmont and scattered southwestward, widespread northward; e. and w. of MS river]
          6 Basal (proximal) scale of spikelet amplexicaulous (encircling the culm).
                 9 Achenes prominently reticulate-pitted or finely rugulose (at 10-20×); [of the outer Coastal Plain]
                 9 Achenes smooth to faintly reticulate; [of the Mountains, rarely Piedmont, or outer Coastal Plain].
                   10 Culms slender to filiform; scales obtuse, 30-40 per spikelet; scales 2-3.5 mm long; achenes 0.9-1.6 mm long; leaf sheath apex with tooth (0.1 mm long) sometimes present; [of basic soils, southward in the Mountains and rarely Piedmont, widespread northward]
                   10 Culms thicker, somewhat inflated; scales acute, 5-30 per spikelet; scales 3-4 mm long; achenes 1.3-1.8 mm long; leaf sheath apex without tooth; [of brackish habitats of the outer Coastal Plain, NC northward]
        5 Tufted or cespitose annuals without thick horizontal rhizomes; achenes persistent in spikelets, 0.3-1.2(-1.5) mm long; tubercles deltoid, or umbonate to subconic.
                     11 Mature achenes reddish-black to black; tubercles subconic to umbonate (with a knob-like protuberance); leaf sheath apex not bearing a tooth; [series Maculosae].
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Show caption*© Jay Horn
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Show caption*© Jay Horn
                       12 Spikes lance-ovoid to subcylindric; achene 0.3-0.5(-0.6) mm long, apex often constricted at junction with tubercle (achene with thin neck); bristles colorless or white
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Show caption*© Scott Ward
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Show caption*© Jay Horn
                       12 Spikes ovoid to subglobose; achene 0.7-1.0 mm long, apex rarely constricted at junction with tubercle (achene without thin neck); bristles red-brown (sometimes whitish)
                     11 Mature achenes white, brown, yellow, or occasionally greenish (never black); tubercles deltoid; leaf sheath apex present on some or all culms; [series Ovatae].
                          13 Tubercle < 0.5 mm wide, < 2/3 the width of the achene; achenes 0.75-1 mm long; spikelets ovoid.
                            14 Perianth bristles 2-4, or absent, if present then highly reduced or rudimentary (or rarely, equaling achene), never exceeding tubercle; tubercles 0.2-0.3 mm high; [fresh tidal river shores, rare; DE, NJ, and PA northward]
                            14 Perianth bristles 5-7, retrorsely barbed, exceeding tubercle; tubercles 0.3-0.5 mm high; [widespread, VA w. to MO northward]
                          13 Tubercle > 0.5 mm wide, > 2/3 the width of the achene (often nearly as wide as achene); achenes 0.9-1.2 mm long; spikelets broadly ovoid to narrowly lanceoloid.
                              15 Bristles much shorter than the achene, rudimentary, or absent
                              15 Bristles as long as or exceeding the tubercle, present.
                                16 Spikelet narrowly lanceoloid, apex acute; scales ovate with acute apices; styles 2-fid only; tubercle 0.5-0.7 mm wide; culms typically 20-35 cm long; [west of MS river, disjunct and rare in TN]
                                16 Spikelet mostly broadly ovoid (sometimes ellipsoid/lanceoloid), apex usually rounded (sometimes acute); scales elliptic with rounded apices; tubercle 0.7-0.9 mm wide; styles 2-fid AND 3-fid; culms 3-50(-90) cm long; [widespread e. and w. of MS river]

Key to Eleocharis, Key F: spikerushes with achenes trigonous, compressed-trigonous, or terete and styles mostly 3-branched.

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1 Tubercle (0.9-) 1.2-1.7 mm long, noticeably larger than achene
1 Tubercle distinctly smaller than and not exceeding the achene size; at least the length, width, or both, smaller than achene dimensions (typically < 0.8 mm long).
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Show caption*© Scott Ward
  2 Achene apex conspicuously truncate and flattened; mature achenes black
  2 Achene apex not truncate; instead rounded towards the tubercle, the junction of the achene and tubercle with or without a tapered transition zone ("neck"); mature achenes variously colored (sometimes dark brown or chestnut brown, but never black).
    3 Tubercle confluent with achene (not clearly differentiated); thus, tubercle base and achene apex merged and with little to no demarcation.
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Show caption*© Scott Ward
      4 Achenes (0.75-) 0.9-1.2 mm long, stramineous to golden-yellow or pale brown colored; plants with tubers or terminating rhizomes noticeably J-shaped, 0.5-1 mm wide; [mostly coastal, brackish, or tidal habitats, rarely occurring within inland salt marshes, sect. Parvulae]
      4 Achenes 1.5-2.5 mm long, stramineous, medium brown, to gray-brown colored (greenish on immature achenes); plants tufted, tip-rooting, or rhizomatous (if rhizomatous, then with terminating bulbs, but not J-shaped tubers); [plants usually of inland fens, seepages, or other similar calcareous, or lime-influenced habitats; also in coastal, brackish marshes].
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Show caption*© Paul Marcum
        5 Spikelets with 3-10 scales; achene apex with thin "neck" below confluent tubercle, plants without tip-rooting culms or proliferous spikelets (instead plants erect, with terminal bulbs usually present on creeping rhizomes); culms subterete to slightly compressed; culms up to 2x as wide as thick; [subgenus Zinserlingia]
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Show caption*© Scott Ward
        5 Spikelets with 20-40 scales; achene apex without "neck" below confluent tubercle, plants usually with some culms tip-rooting; culms compressed, 1.5-3x as wide as thick; [subgenus Eleocharis, ser. Rostellatae]
    3 Tubercle not confluent with achene (these structures distinguishable, with a distinct separation between).
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Show caption*© Scott Ward
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Show caption*© Melanie Flood
          6 Achene 1.2-1.7 (2.5) mm long; culms usually spirally twisted, acutely triangular or elliptic; scales spirally arranged; achenes coarsely honeycomb-reticulate
          6 Achene 0.45-1.2 mm long; culms not spirally twisted, variously shaped; scales distichous, spiraled, or spirodistichous; achenes smooth to finely or coarsely honeycomb-reticulate.
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Show caption*© Rob Routledge, some rights reserved (CC BY-NC), uploaded by Rob Routledge
             7 Some or most culms with the distal leaf sheath apex bearing a distinct tooth, the tooth (usually at least 0.2 mm long) sharpened to an apical point and much thinned from the obtuse or subtruncate (sometimes acute in E. tenuis) sheath below; distal leaf sheaths persistent (not splitting).
               8 Achene surface smooth to finely reticulate (at 20-30x), not distinctly rugulose or honeycomb-reticulate; achenes 0.6-0.8 mm long; culms 20-55 cm long; [rare, s. TX].
                 9 Bristles 3-6, rudimentary to < 1/2 the achene length; achenes 0.6-0.65 mm long, compressed-trigonous; culms soft and spongy, without internal septae; spikelets narrowly lanceoloid to cylindric, 1-1.5 mm wide
                 9 Bristles 5-6, their length equaling the achene; achenes 0.6-0.8 mm long, occasionally some appearing biconvex; culms with internal septae (these only evident after sectioning the culm); spikelets lanceoloid, 2-2.5 mm wide
               8 Achene surface honeycomb-reticulate or finely rugulose; achenes 0.6-1.2 mm long; culms 5-90 cm long; [collectively widespread].
                   10 Bristles present, 1-5 (E. fallax) or 5-6 (E. montevidensis), usually about as long as achene (rarely rudimentary); achenes compressed-trigonous with angles often obscured; [fresh to brackish habitats of the outer Coastal Plain].
                     11 Culms 40-70 cm tall; scales hyaline with red-brown to blackish brown central stripes; achenes prominently pitted like a honeycomb (prominently rugulose); tubercle 0.3-0.5 mm tall
                     11 Culms usually up to 37 cm tall (reportedly taller, but not verified; mostly < 25 cm tall in NC and SC); scales hyaline with orange-brown to dull orange central stripes (notably orangey on fresh specimens); achenes faintly or obscurely pitted (finely rugulose); tubercle 0.25-0.3 mm tall
                   10 Bristles absent, or if present only 1-3 (these usually falling at maturity); achenes keeled or prominently trigonous; [wet acidic or calcareous sites; throughout coastal plain or inland].
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Show caption*© Scott Ward
                       12 Achenes with 3 prominent raised angles (keels); achene surface rugulose; bristles absent
                       12 Achenes evidently trigonous, but lacking 3 prominent keels; achene surface finely to coarsely rugulose; bristles absent or present.
                          13 Achenes 0.7-1.2 mm long, persistent after scales fall; bristles absent or if present then to 1/2 the achene length; achene faces with 12-20 horizontal ridges (wavy rows) from apex to base of achene; culms usually 6-8 angled; [usually wet calcareous habitats; scattered PA southward, more common northward]
                          13 Achenes 0.6-0.9 mm long, not persistent (falling with or before scales); bristles absent or if present, 1-3, up to as long as achene length, and usually falling at maturity; achene faces with 6-12 ridges (or rows of depressed cells) from apex to base of achene; culms usually 4 (-5) angled; [widespread in e. US].
                            14 Rhizomes (1.1-) 1.4-1.9 (-2.3) mm wide, appearing thick relative to short internode lengths of (0.9-) 1.3-2.6 (-4.4) mm, scales of rhizome (1.4-) 2.3-3.3 (-4.6) mm long; tubercles typically ¾ the width of achene, greatly depressed, rarely pyramidal; achenes 0.6-0.7 (-0.9) mm in length to base of tubercle by 0.5 (-0.7) mm wide, coarsely (to finely) rugose to cancellate (at 10× magnification); [intermittent from e. PA and NJ south to GA, west to e. NE, OK, and TX, where more common]
                            14 Rhizomes 0.6-1.4 (-1.9) mm wide, appearing delicate or slender relative to long internode lengths of (2.6-) 3.5-7.7 (-10.0) mm, scales of rhizome (3.7-) 4.4-8.5 (-10.2) long; tubercles typically less than ¾ the width of achene, pyramidal to depressed; finely rugulose to finely cancellate (at 10× magnification).
                              15 Culms sharply angled, usually deeply sulcate, to 0.8 mm wide; distal leaf sheaths usually with stout apical tooth 0.4-0.6(-0.9) mm; rhizomes slender, (0.8-) 0.9-1.4 (-1.9) mm wide, with longer internodes (3.2-) 4.6-7.7 (-10) mm, scales of rhizome (3.7-) 5.1-8.5 (-10.2) mm in length; tubercles depressed, rarely pyramidal (0.3-) 0.4-0.6 mm wide; achene elongate obovate to faintly spatulate, (0.7-) 0.9-1.1 mm long by 0.6-0.8 mm wide, obscurely to finely rugulose (at 10× magnification); [w. NC northeast to se. ME, disjunct to s. IL]
                              15 Culms bluntly angled to smooth, seldom deeply sulcate, to 0.5 mm wide; distal leaf sheaths with or without apical tooth to 0.2 mm; rhizomes delicate to slender, 0.6-1.0 (-1.2) mm wide, with longer internodes (2.6-) 3.5-5.9 (-8.0), scales of rhizome (3.7-) 4.4-6.7 (-7.9) mm in length; tubercles pyramidal, rarely depressed (0.2-) 0.3-0.4 mm wide; achene obovate, rugulose to finely cancellate at 10×; [e. KY and w. NC northeast to NS]
             7 Distal leaf sheath apex of culms without a distinct, abrupt tooth; instead the sheath apex acute, blunt, or rounded; if sometimes with a subacute, linear blade (as in E. intermedia) then gradually widened at the base and otherwise with a papery or membranous texture; distal leaf sheaths often persistent, but sometimes membraneous and disintegrating.
                                16 Achenes smooth, sometimes finely pitted (as in E. brittonii) or finely reticulate, i.e. with a network of veins or appearing lattice-like (as in E. baldwinii), but never bearing a distinctly wrinkled, honeycomb-reticulate, or otherwise textured surface.
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Show caption*© Scott Ward
                                  17 Proximal (bottom-most) scale of spikelet not amplexicaulous (only spanning 1/2 the width of culm); scales 10-100 per spikelet; culms elliptic, subterete, or terete (occasionally polygonal, but not conspicuously quadrangular or sulcate); plants without proliferous spikelets.
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Show caption*© Scott Ward
                                    18 Bristles absent; plants cespitose annuals; achene length 0.5-0.6 mm, achene width 0.33-0.4 mm; culms 1-9 cm long, very soft; achenes pearly white to grayish; [primarily FL, rare further north; flatwoods and other moist, terrestrial sites]
                                    18 Bristles present, 5-8 (usually 6); plants perennial with soft rhizomes; achene length 0.8-1 mm, achene width 0.7-0.8 mm; culms 10-40 cm long, soft to firm; achenes dark brown when mature; [MD to FL, w. to TX; brackish or highmarsh sites, usually coastal].
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Show caption*© Scott Ward
                                       19 Spikelets (2.3-) 2.4-3.2 (-3.7) mm wide; plants 15-24 (-28) cm tall, culm ± erect; achenes 0.65-0.8 mm wide; tubercles 0.25-0.3 (-0.35) mm wide; bristles rarely exceeding the tubercle, (0.8-) 1-1.1 (-1.2)× as long as achene-tubercle complex; [widespread from MD to FL, w. to TX]
                                       19 Spikelets 1.5-2.3 (-2.4) mm wide; plants 30-40 cm tall, culm lax; achenes 0.5-0.6 mm wide; tubercles 0.1-0.2 mm wide; bristles exceeding the tubercle, 1.2-1.7 (-2)× as long as achene-tubercle complex; [Camden Co., GA; perhaps to be found to be somewhat more widespread]
                                  17 Proximal (bottom-most) scale amplexicaulous (or nearly so); scales 2-28 per spikelet (13-76 in E. brittonii); culms typically quadrangular or sulcate (grooved), sometimes broadly elliptic; plants with or without proliferous spikelets.
                                         20 Plants never with proliferous spikelets, rhizomes present (but plants still appearing cespitose or tufted); achenes white or brown, not spotted.
                                           21 Bristles absent, or if present, 1-4, rudimentary to shorter than achene length, colorless to white; achenes typically biconvex, but rarely trigonous; [GA and FL w. to MS]
                                           21 Bristles 6, equaling to far exceeding tubercle, red-brown; achenes trigonous with prominent angles; [FL]
                                         20 Plants often with a few to many proliferous spikelets, without rhizomes; achenes white, brown, grey, green, olive, or reddish-brown, spotted or not.
                                             22 Scales 2-ranked, obviously distichous; scales fewer, typically 2-4 (-9); bristles 6
                                             22 Scales spirally imbricate or spirodistichous (i.e. appearing superficially spiraled as in E. minima); scales >10 per spikelet (occasionally as few as 4 in E. minima); bristles present or absent.
                                               23 Spikelets with proximal scale deciduous or sometimes persistent on some spikelets, proximal scale appearing similar to other scales (when still present); achenes greenish to pale or reddish brown, usually broadest near the middle; perianth bristles present, slightly shorter than achene to exceeding tubercle; culms (1-) 3-7 (-13) cm long, usually flexuous and recurved; tubercle 0.15-3 mm long, broad, covering most of achene summit; [GA and FL w. to TX]
                                               23 Spikelets with proximal scale persistent, clearly different from floral scales, usually longer and often resembling involucral bract, often with an excurrent midrib; achenes white or pale gray, broadest above the middle; perianth bristles present or absent, rudimentary to equaling achene; culms 2-40 cm long, ascending or arching; tubercle 0.05-0.2 mm long, shortly pyramidal or birettaform, perched at achene summit and not covering most of it; [collectively widespread].
                                                 24 Proximal scale with rounded apex, the scale elliptic or lanceolate, the tip appressed; scale apices rounded throughout spikelet; perianth bristles shorter than achene or absent; tubercle birettaform (with 3-4 small peaks; resembling a biretta); culms 7-37 cm long
                                                 24 Proximal scale with subacute to acute apex, the scale ovate or lanceolate, the tip free; scale apices attenuate to acute throughout spikelet; perianth bristles vestigial to equaling achene or sometimes absent; tubercles pyramidal, semicircular, or birettaform; culms 2-40 cm long.
                                                    25 Perianth bristles 0.6-1.0 mm long (shorter than to equaling the achene); proximal scale of the spikelets 0.8-1.0 mm wide
                                                    25 Perianth bristles 0.2-0.4 mm long (shorter than the achene); proximal scale of the spikelets 0.4-0.5 mm wide
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Show caption*© Scott Ward
                                16 Achenes finely rugulose (with a wrinkled texture) or honeycomb-reticulate, bearing some texture.
                                                      26 Culms distinctly compressed (sometimes subterete-compressed in E. compressa var. acutisquamata); at least some scales bifid or shallowly cut; [habitat often calcareous or limestone-derived].
                                                        27 Plants densely cespitose (rhizomes present, but concealed by persistent living or dead culm bases); spikelet scales primarily bifid throughout.
                                                          28 Culm width 0.7-2.3 mm; proximal-most scale of spikelet clasping 2/3-3/4 of culm; flowering and fruiting mostly May-June; [KY and w. VA south through TN to nw. GA and n. AL]
                                                          28 Culm width 0.2-0.5 (-0.7) mm; proximal-most scale of spikelet amplexicaulous; flowering and fruiting mostly March-May (-July); [endemic to OK and TX]
                                                        27 Plants perennial, mat-forming (rhizomes not hidden by culm bases); spikelets a mix of entire and bifid scales (the proximal-most scale entire, remaining proximal 1/2 of scales bifid or shallowly cut, and distal scales often entire).
                                                            29 Culms subterete to slightly compressed, not more than 2 times as wide as thick, (0.2-) 0.5-1 mm wide; [IN, MO, OK, TX, westward]
                                                            29 Culms bi-laterally compressed, 2-5 times as wide as thick, 0.5-1.8 mm wide; [widespread east of Mississippi River, also north of LA and OK]
                                                      26 Culms not compressed; instead terete, subterete, elliptic, sulcate (grooved) or with 4-many ridges; if culms ridged, the ridges sometimes sharp and often most evident when culms have dried; apex of scales entire, not bifid (except for E. occulta); [habitat calcareous or acidic].
                                                              30 Spikelets with 2-6 scales; achene apex broad and flattened; tubercle base trilobed, the lobes decurrent along achene angles; [rare, possible ballast waif near Mobile, AL and potentially other Gulf coastal sites]
                                                              30 Spikelets with 5-60 scales; achene apex not flattened, instead constricted gradually or abruptly towards apex at junction with tubercle; tubercle not trilobed; [widespread]
                                                                 31 Culms bluntly, smoothly, or deeply sulcate, usually 4 (-5) angled with evident ridges or angles; achenes coarsely honeycomb reticulate
                                                                 31 Culms not sharply angled; instead terete, subterete, broadly elliptic, or subterete-compressed; achenes papillose, or finely to coarsely honeycomb reticulate.
                                                                   32 Scales of spikelet bifid, 20-50 scales per spikelet; plants densely cespitose and with horizontal rhizomes present (although these obscured by persistent leaf bases); [endemic to OK and TX]
                                                                   32 Scales of spikelet acute or obtuse, not bifid; 5-35 scales per spikelet; plants cespitose or with proliferous spikelets, but lacking horizontal rhizomes; [collectively widespread]
                                                                     33 Achenes 0.6-0.8 mm long, gray or greenish colored, trigonous with prominent angles; plants often bearing some proliferous spikelets; tubercle > 1/3 the length of the achene; [VA s. to FL, w. to TX]
                                                                     33 Achenes 0.9-1.1 mm long, golden yellow to golden brown colored, compressed-trigonous to nearly terete; plants without proliferous spikelets; tubercles typically 1/3 or less than the length of the achene; [TN and NC northward].
                                                                       34 Plants rhizomatous perennials; achene compressed-trigonous, obovoid to obpyriform; tubercle pyramidal, the width equaling the length; [of coastal fresh to brackish ponds, lakeshores, marshes, and similar habitats; NS s. to NJ, disjunct in e. NC]
                                                                       34 Plants annual, cespitose (with inconspicuous rhizomes); achene nearly terete, narrowly obpyriform; tubercle slender-conic with narrow base; [of basic soils inland, common northeast, scattered southward in WV, VA, and TN] .